Ultrasound Safety: selected references
(Taken from the Ultrasound: Cause for Concern, chapter 5 in Gentle Birth, Gentle Mothering 2009
History of Ultrasound
1. Wagner M. Ultrasound: more harm than good? Midwifery Today Int Midwife. Summer 1999(50):28-30.
2. Woo DJ. A Short History of the Development of Ultrasound in Obstetrics and
Gynecology. Available at: http://www.ob-ultrasound.net/history1.html.
3. de Crespigny L, Dredge R. Which Tests for my Unborn Baby? Ultrasound and other prenatal tests. 2nd ed. Melbourne: Oxford University Press; 1996.
4. Oakley A. The history of ultrasonography in obstetrics. Birth. Mar 1986;13(1):8-13.
5. Martin J, Hamilton B, Sutton P, Ventura S, Menacker F, Munson M. Births: Final data for 2002. National vital statistics reports. Vol 52. Hyattsville MD: National Center for Health Statistics; 2003.
6. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. ACOG Practice Bulletin No. 58. Ultrasonography in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. Dec 2004;104(6):1449-1458.
7. Beech BL. Ultrasound unsound? Talk at Mercy Hospital, Melbourne; April 1993.
8. Neilson JP. Ultrasound for fetal assessment in early pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2000(2):CD000182.
9. Meire HB. The safety of diagnostic ultrasound. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. Dec 1987;94(12):1121-1122, p 1122.
What is Ultrasound?
10. American Institute of Ultrasound in Medicine. Keepsake Fetal Imaging; 2005.
11. Health Canada. Fetal Ultrasound For Keepsake Videos. Available at: http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/iyh-vsv/med/ultrasound-echographie_e.html.
12. Canadian Society of Diagnostic Medical Sonographers. Position on the use of diagnostic ultrasound for nonmedical purposes. Available at: http://www.csdms.com/docs/02.pdf.
13. A merican College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. ACOG Committee Opinion. Number 297, August 2004. Nonmedical use of obstetric ultrasonography. Obstet Gynecol. Aug 2004;104(2):423-424.
14. United States Food and Drug Administration. Official Statement on Ultrasonic Fetal Imaging. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/FDA C/features/2004/104_images.htm.
Information gained from ultrasound
15. Richards DS, Cornwall G. Accuracy of Ultrasound Dating. Available at: http://www.obgyn.ufl.edu/ultrasound/MedinfoVersion/sec6/6 _6.htm.
16. Kieler H, Axelsson O, Nilsson S, Waldenstrom U. Comparison of ultrasonic measurement of biparietal diameter and last menstrual period as a predictor of day of delivery in women with regular 28-day cycles. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. Jul 1993;72(5):347-349.
17. Olsen O, Aaroe Clausen J. Routine ultrasound dating has not been shown to be more accurate than the calendar method. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. Nov 1997;104(11):1221-1222.
18. Stefos T, Plachouras N, Sotiriadis A, et al. Routine obstetrical ultrasound at 18-22 weeks: our experience on 7,236 fetuses. J Matern Fetal Med. Mar-Apr 1999;8(2):64-69.
19. Saltvedt S, Almstrom H, Kublickas M, Valentin L, Grunewald C. Detection of malformations in chromosomally normal fetuses by routine ultrasound at 12 or 18 weeks of gestation-a randomized controlled trial in 39,572 pregnancies.
BJOG. Jun 2006;113(6):664-674.
20. Grandjean H, Larroque D, Levi S. Sensitivity of routine ultrasound screening of pregnancies in the Eurofetus database. The Eurofetus Team. Ann N Y Acad Sci. Jun 18 1998;847:118-124.
21. Crane JP, LeFevre ML, Winborn RC, et al. A randomized trial of prenatal ultrasonographic screening: impact on the detection, management, and outcome of anomalous fetuses. The RADIUS Study Group. Am J Obstet Gynecol. Aug 1994;171(2):392-399.
22. Chan F. Limitations of Ultrasound.Perinatal Society of Australia and New Zealand 1st Annual Congress. Freemantle, Australia; 1997.
23. Brand IR, Kaminopetros P, Cave M, Irving HC, Lilford RJ. Specificity of antenatal ultrasound in the Yorkshire Region: a prospective study of 2261 ultrasound detected anomalies. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. May 1994;101(5):392-397.
24. Borsellino A, Zaccara A, Nahom A, et al. False-positive rate in prenatal diagnosis of surgical anomalies. J Pediatr Surg. Apr 2006;41(4):826-829.
25. Martinez-Zamora MA, Borrell A, Borobio V, et al. False positives in the prenatal ultrasound screening of fetal structural anomalies. Prenat Diagn. Jan 2007;27(1):18-22.
26. Saari-Kemppainen A, Karjalainen O, Ylostalo P, Heinonen OP. Ultrasound screening and perinatal mortality: controlled trial of systematic one-stage screening in pregnancy. The Helsinki Ultrasound Trial. Lancet. Aug 18 1990;336(8712):387-391.
27. Sparling JW, Seeds JW, Farran DC. The relationship of obstetric ultrasound to parent and infant behavior. Obstet Gynecol. Dec 1988;72(6):902-907.
28. Whittle M. Ultrasonographic “soft markers” of fetal chromosomal defects. Br Med J. Mar 29 1997;314(7085):918.
29. Stewart TL. Screening for aneuploidy: the genetic sonogram. Obstet Gynecol Clin North Am. Mar 2004;31(1):21-33.
30. Brookes A. Women’s experience of routine prenatal ultrasound. Healthsharing Women: The Newsletter of Healthsharing Women’s Health Resource Service, Melbourne. 1994/5;5(3-4):1-5.
31. Khan AT, Stewart KS. Ultrasound placental localisation in early pregnancy. Scott Med J. Feb 1987;32(1):19-21.
32. Chama CM, Wanonyi IK, Usman JD. From low-lying implantation to placenta praevia: a longitudinal ultrasonic assessment. J Obstet Gynaecol. Aug 2004;24(5):516-518.
33. Page IJ, Wolstenhulme S. Does the ultrasound diagnosis of low-lying placenta in early pregnancy warrant a repeat scan? J R Army Med Corps. Jun 1991;137(2):84-87.
34. Ancona S, Chatterjee M, Rhee I, Sicurenza B. The mid-trimester placenta previa: a prospective follow-up. Eur J Radiol. May-Jun 1990;10(3):215-216.
35. Morris JM, Thompson K, Smithey J, et al. The usefulness of ultrasound assessment of amniotic fluid in predicting adverse outcome in prolonged pregnancy: a prospective blinded observational study. BJOG. Nov 2003;110(11):989-994.
36. Hofmeyr GJ, Gulmezoglu AM. Maternal hydration for increasing amniotic fluid volume in oligohydramnios and normal amniotic fluid volume. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2002(1):CD000134.
37. I ams JD, Goldenberg RL, Mercer BM, et al. The preterm prediction study: can low-risk women destined for spontaneous preterm birth be identified? Am J Obstet Gynecol. Mar 2001;184(4):652-655.
38. Owen J, Yost N, Berghella V, et al. Mid-trimester endovaginal sonography in women at high risk for spontaneous preterm birth. JAMA. Sep 19 2001;286(11):1340-1348.
39. Kreiser D, el-Sayed YY, Sorem KA, Chitkara U, Holbrook RH, Jr., Druzin ML. Decreased amniotic fluid index in low-risk pregnancy. J Reprod Med. Aug 2001;46(8):743-746.
40. Roberts T, Henderson J, Mugford M, Bricker L, Neilson J, Garcia J. Antenata ultrasound screening for fetal abnormalities: a systematic review of studies of cost and cost effectiveness. BJOG. Jan 2002;109(1):44-56.
Biological effects
41. Van den Hof MC, Wilson D. Obstetric Ultrasound: Is It Time for Informed Consent? J Obstet Gynaecol Can. 2005;27(6):569.
42. American Institute of Ultrasound in Medicine Bioeffects Committee. Bioeffects considerations for the safety of diagnostic ultrasound. J Ultrasound Med. Sep 1988;7(9 Suppl):S1-38.
43. Deane C. Safety of Diagnostic Ultrasound in Fetal Scanning. In: Kypros Nicolaides GR, Kurt Hecker and Renato Ximenes, ed. Doppler in Obstetrics. Centrus; 2002.
44. Barnett SB. Intracranial temperature elevation from diagnostic ultrasound. Ultrasound Med Biol. Jul 2001;27(7):883- 888.
45. Jago JR, Henderson J, Whittingham TA, and Mitchell G. A comparison of AIUM/NEMA thermal indices with calculated temperature rises for a simple third-trimester pregnancy tissue model. Ultrasound in Med. & Biol. 1999;25(4):623-628.
46. Barnett SB, Maulik D. Guidelines and recommendations for safe use of Doppler ultrasound in perinatal applications.J Matern Fetal Med. Apr 2001;10(2): 75-84.
47. Church CC, Miller MW. Quantification of risk from fetal exposure to diagnostic ultrasound. Prog Biophys Mol Biol. Jan- Apr 2007;93(1-3):331-353, p 336.
48. Pohl EE, Rosenfeld EH, Pohl P, Millner R. Effects of ultrasound on agglutination and aggregation of human erythrocytes in vitro. Ultrasound Med Biol. 1995;21(5):711-719.
49. Liebeskind D, Bases R, Elequin F, et al. Diagnostic ultrasound: effects on the DNA and growth patterns of animal cells. Radiology. Apr 1979;131(1):177-184.
50. Ellisman MH, Palmer DE, Andre MP. Diagnostic levels of ultrasound may disrupt myelination. Exp Neurol. Oct 1987;98(1):78-92.
51. Stanton MT, Ettarh R, Arango D, Tonra M, Brennan PC. Diagnostic ultrasound induces change within numbers of cryptal mitotic and apoptotic cells in small intestine. Life Sci. Feb 16 2001;68(13):1471-1475.
52. Dalecki D, Child SZ, Raeman CH, Cox C. Hemorrhage in murine fetuses exposed to pulsed ultrasound. Ultrasound Med Biol. Sep 1999;25(7):1139-1144.
53. Suresh R, Uma Devi P, Ovchinnikov N, McRae A. Long-term effects of diagnostic ultrasound during fetal period on postnatal development and adult behavior of mouse. Life Sci. Jun 7 2002;71(3):339-350.
54. Ang ES, Jr., Gluncic V, Duque A, Schafer ME, Rakic P. Prenatal exposure to ultrasound waves impacts neuronal migration in mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. Aug 22 2006;103(34):12903-12910.
55. Arulkumaran S, Talbert DG, Nyman M, Westgren M, Su HT, Ratnam SS. Audible in utero sound caused by the ultrasonic radiation force from a real-time scanner. J Obstet Gynaecol Res. Dec 1996;22(6):523-527.
56. Fatemi M, Ogburn PL, Jr., Greenleaf JF. Fetal stimulation by pulsed diagnostic ultrasound. J Ultrasound Med. Aug 2001;20(8):883-889.
57. Crum LA, Walton AJ, Mortimer A, Dyson M, Crawford DC, Gaitan DF. Free radical production in amniotic fluid and blood plasma by medical ultrasound. J Ultrasound Med. Nov 1987;6(11):643-647.
58. Tarantal AF, O’Brien WD, Hendrickx AG. Evaluation of the bioeffects of prenatal ultrasound exposure in the cynomolgus macaque (Macaca fascicularis): III. Developmental and hematologic studies. Teratology. Feb 1993;47(2):159-170.
59. Tarantal AF, Gargosky SE, Ellis DS, O’Brien WD, Jr., Hendrickx AG. Hematologic and growth-related effects of frequent prenatal ultrasound exposure in the long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis). Ultrasound Med Biol. 1995;21(8):1073-1081.
60. American Institute of Ultrasound in Medicine. Section 4—bioeffects in tissues with gas bodies. American Institute of Ultrasound in Medicine. J Ultrasound Med. Feb 2000;19(2):97-108, 154-168, p 107.
61. Testart J, Thebault A, Souderes E, Frydman R. Premature ovulation after ovarian ultrasonography. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. Sep 1982;89(9):694-700.
Human studies
62. Lorenz RP, Comstock CH, Bottoms SF, Marx SR. Randomized prospective trial comparing ultrasonography and pelvic examination for preterm labor surveillance. Am J Obstet Gynecol. Jun 1990;162(6):1603-1607; discussion 1607-1610.
63. Geerts LT, Brand EJ, Theron GB. Routine obstetric ultrasound examinations in South Africa: cost and effect on perinatal outcome—a prospective randomised controlled trial. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. Jun 1996;103(6):501-507.
64. Newnham JP, Evans SF, Michael CA, Stanley FJ, Landau LI. Effects of frequent ultrasound during pregnancy: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet. Oct 9 1993;342(8876):887-891.
65. Newnham JP, O’Dea MR, Reid KP, Diepeveen DA . Doppler flow velocity waveform analysis in high risk pregnancies: a randomized controlled trial. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. Oct 1991;98(10): 956-963.
66. Davies JA, Gallivan S, Spencer JA. Randomised controlled trial of Doppler ultrasound screening of placental perfusion during pregnancy. Lancet. Nov 28 1992;340(8831):1299-1303.
67. S tark CR, Orleans M, Haverkamp AD, Murphy J. Short- and long-term risks after exposure to diagnostic ultrasound in utero. Obstet Gynecol. Feb 1984;63(2):194-200.
68. Campbell JD, Elford RW, Brant RF. Case-control study of prenatal ultrasonography exposure in children with delayed speech. Can Med Assoc J. Nov 15 1993;149(10):1435-1440.
69. Kieler H, Axelsson O, Haglund B, Nilsson S, Salvesen KA. Routine ultrasound screening in pregnancy and the children’s subsequent handedness. Early Hum Dev. Jan 9 1998;50(2):233-245.
70. Kieler H, Cnattingius S, Haglund B, Palmgren J, Axelsson O. Sinistrality— a side-effect of prenatal sonography: a comparative study of young men. Epidemiology. Nov 2001;12(6):618-623.
71. Salvesen KA, Eik-Nes SH. Ultrasound during pregnancy and subsequent childhood non-right handedness: a metaanalysis. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. Apr 1999;13(4):241-246.
72. Salvesen KA, Vatten LJ, Eik-Nes SH, Hugdahl K, Bakketeig LS. Routine ultrasonography in utero and subsequent handedness and neurological development. Br Med J. Jul 17 1993;307(6897):159-164.
73. Odent M. Where does handedness come from? Handedness from a primal health research perspective. Primal Health Research. 1998;6(1):1-6.
74. Salvesen KA. Epidemiological prenatal ultrasound studies. Prog Biophys Mol Biol. Jan-Apr 2007;93(1-3):295-300.
75. Kieler H, Ahlsten G, Haglund B, Salvesen K, Axelsson O. Routine ultrasound screening in pregnancy and the children’s subsequent neurologic development. Obstet Gynecol. May 1998;91(5 Pt 1):750-756. 76. Kieler H, Haglund B, Waldenstrom U, Axelsson O. Routine ultrasound screening in pregnancy and the children’s subsequent growth, vision and hearing. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. Nov 1997;104(11):1267-1272.
77. Salvesen KA, Jacobsen G, Vatten LJ, Eik-Nes SH, Bakketeig LS. Routine ultrasonography in utero and subsequent growth during childhood. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. Jan 1 1993;3(1):6-10.
78. Salvesen KA, Vatten LJ, Bakketeig LS, Eik-Nes SH. Routine ultrasonography in utero and speech development. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. Mar 1 1994;4(2):101-103.
79. Salvesen KA, Vatten LJ, Jacobsen G, et al. Routine ultrasonography in utero and subsequent vision and hearing at primary school age. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. Jul 1 1992;2(4):243-244, 245- 247.
80. Salvesen KA, Bakketeig LS, Eik-nes SH, Undheim JO, Okland O. Routine ultrasonography in utero and school performance at age 8-9 years. Lancet. Jan 11 1992;339(8785):85-89.
81. Kieler H, Cnattingius S, Palmgren J, Haglund B, Axelsson O. First trimester ultrasound scans and left-handedness. Epidemiology. May 2002;13(3):370.
82. Henderson J, Willson K, Jago J, Whittingham T. A survey of the acoustic outputs of diagnostic ultrasound equipment in current clinical use. Ultrasound Med. Biol. 1995;21(5):699-705.
83. Newnham JP, Doherty DA , Kendall GE, Zubrick SR, Landau LL, Stanley FJ. Effects of repeated prenatal ultrasound examinations on childhood outcome up to 8 years of age: follow-up of a randomised controlled trial. Lancet. Dec 4 2004;364(9450):2038-2044.
84. Newnham JP, Doherty DA , Kendall GE, Zubrick SR, Landau LL, Stanley FJ. Effects of repeated prenatal ultrasound examinations on childhood outcome up to 8 years of age: follow-up of a randomised controlled trial. Lancet. Dec 4 2004;364(9450):2038-2044, p 2043.
85. Salvesen KA. Epidemiological prenatal ultrasound studies. Prog Biophys Mol Biol. Jan-Apr 2007;93(1-3):295-300, p 301.
86. Marinac-Dabic D, Krulewitch CJ, Moore RM, Jr. The safety of prenatal ultrasound exposure in human studies. Epidemiology. May 2002;13(3 Suppl):S19-22., p S19.
Ultrasound exposure and dose
87. Marinac-Dabic D, Krulewitch CJ, Moore RM, Jr. The safety of prenatal ultrasound exposure in human studies. Epidemiology. May 2002;13(3 Suppl):S19-22., p S22.
88. Meire HB. The safety of diagnostic ultrasound. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. Dec 1987;94(12):1121-1122.
89. American Institute of Ultrasound in Medicine. Section 7—discussion of the mechanical index and other exposure parameters. J Ultrasound Med. Feb 2000;19(2):143-148, 154-168.
90. Fowlkes JB, Holland CK. Mechanical bioeffects from diagnostic ultrasound: AIUM consensus statements. American Institute of Ultrasound in Medicine.J Ultrasound Med. Feb 2000;19(2):69-72, p 70.
Women’s experience of ultarsound
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92. Sedgmen B, McMahon C, Cairns D, Benzie RJ, Woodfield RL. The impact of two-dimensional versus three-dimensional ultrasound exposure on maternalfetal attachment and maternal health behavior in pregnancy. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. Mar 2006;27(3):245-251.
93. Garcia J, Bricker L, Henderson J, et al. Women’s views of pregnancy ultrasound: a systematic review. Birth. Dec 2002;29(4):225-250.
94. Nicol M. Vulnerability of first-time expectant mothers during ultrasound scans: an evaluation of the external pressures that influence the process of informed choice. Health Care Women Int. Jul 2007;28(6):525-533.
95. Greer G. The Goddess or The Birth Machine (talk). Paper presented at: Homebirth Australia National Conference; Sept 1993; Byron Bay, Australia.
96. Lalor JG, Devane D. Information, knowledge and expectations of the routine ultrasound scan. Midwifery. Mar 2007;23(1):13-22.
97. Lalor JG, Devane D. Information, knowledge and expectations of the routine ultrasound scan. Midwifery. Mar 2007;23(1):13-22, p 21.
98. Reist MT. Defiant Birth: Women who Resist Medical Eugenics. Melbourne: Spinifex; 2006.
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